Social capital Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Social capital - Essay Example Putnam, Leonardi and Nanetti in 1993 in their Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, defined the term â€Å"social capital† as â€Å"features of social organisation, such as trust, norms [or reciprocity], and networks [of civil engagement], that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions† (Hobbs 2000). The World Bank defined it as â€Å"the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions† (Hobbs 2000). However despite the differences in perspectives, all believe that social networks are the most valuable assets for the society â€Å"just as a screwdriver (physical capital) or a college education (human capital) can increase productivity (both individual and collective)† (Putnam 2000, p. 19), in the same way forming social contacts are excellent for increasing the productivity of the individuals and even groups (Putnam 2000, p. 19). ... 2). In many of the western democracies of today, we can see the concept of community and social networks at all the civil, political as well as economical levels growing, giving an ample proof of the increase in social relations as the most important cause for maintaining sustainable communities in all the social, economic and democratic spheres of the society. These kinds of social relationships are said to be loaded with the social capital including all the norms or means of production that allow the people to join in the mutual agreement or work in a collective way. There are different traits of social capital like social norms, social network and trust (Productivity Commission 2003, p. x). Social norms are informal rules that formulate the behavior of the people in varying circumstances like showing tolerance and respect towards others etc as well as â€Å"reciprocity† like behavior with others in the way you expect others should behave with you. Similarly social network i s an interconnection between the different groups of people having common characteristics and traits for e.g. family or a religious group. The third one is trust which is simply the way to develop confidence with the people whom you are in contact. Trust is a main thrust of all the relationships and is the most important component for the well being and overall development of the human beings (Productivity Commission 2003, p. xi). Studies conducted on the sociology of economic development in the developing nations as well as around the â€Å"network capitalism† in East Asia have also diverted attention towards the importance of the social networks. In fact even in the Western economies, researchers have found out highly flexible form of â€Å"network

Sex and gender Essay Example for Free

Sex and gender Essay In psychology many different perspectives seek to explain the differences between males and females. In societies they play distinctive roles and are treated and viewed differently. They behave differently too. To compare and contrast the accounts of sex and gender we need to define the terms sex and gender. To examine further we need to examine the key aspects of the biological, evolutionary, social constructionist and psychoanalytical perspectives focusing on similarities and differences regarding their accounts of sex and gender. Finally need to consider the ways in which these perspectives compliment, conflict or simply co-exist with one another. Often the term sex and gender are used interchangeably. Often this usage has lead to confusion therefore we have to begin by attempting to draw a distinction between the terms for discussing psychological perspectives in this paper. Traditionally, the word gender has been used to refer to the cultural aspect of what it is to be man or woman. Womanly or manly and masculine or feminine are viewed as not being connected with a persons biological sex, but more in terms of psychological characteristics shaped by individuals experience (EPoCH CD-ROM). The term sex is used solely when referring to biological and physical traits such as primary and secondary sex characteristics or specifically to sexual intercourse. (Hollway,Cooper,Johnston,Stevens ,The psychology of sex and gender p117). It is important to bear in mind that different perspectives ask different questions and use different methods to examine the basic assumptions made by each perspective with respect to the concepts of sex and gender. In terms of the biological factors that are thought to shape sex and gender include external genitalia, sex chromosomes and genes, hormones and lateralization of brain function. Although it is important to emphasize that anatomy is not necessarily destiny but the most commonly used way to determine sex is then observation of the external (visible) genitals (Hollway, Cooper, Johnston and Stevens, 2003). To determine the individuals sex is through sex chromosomes and every human being has a pair of sex chromosomes; in females this pair normally comprises of two X chromosomes and in males an X and a Y chromosome. Another indicator  of maleness or femaleness for biological theorists are the levels of specific hormones such as testosterone (male) and oestrogen and progesterone (female) which produce primary and secondary sexual characteristics and are different in males and females. But we must not fail to say that genetic abnormalities do occur for example Klinefelters syndrome is when males inherit an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXY pattern resulting in many feminine physical characteristics. While these genetic abnormalities are unusual, they make clear that biological processes alone do not make us male or female (Hollway et al, 2003).Then again biological sex is not central to explaining what it is to be man or a woman and can be unreliable in some cases, it does offer simple explanations which can be tested empirically. Likewise the evolutionary perspective, while adopting a scientific approach similar to biological theorists, cannot be subjected to empirical testing and therefore can operate only at the level of speculation. This is due to its reliance in part on the principles of reverse engineering in constructing theoretical models regarding the origins of human behaviour (Hollway et al, 2003). Moreover evolutionary psychologists argue that genetic make-up and behavioural predispositions between males and females evolved according to the process of sexual selection. (Phoenix, 2002). They believe that reproduction is the only way for an inherited characteristic to be passed on from one generation to the next and thus their primary focus on explaining gender differences is in terms of reproductive behaviour and sexual style. In accordance to this it was found that evolutionary psychologists females generally devote more time and energy to the care of their offspring. As a result of this greater parental investment (Hollway et al, 2003) different patterns of behaviour between males and females developed. Therefore successful females in an attempt to maximise their reproductive success they are more concerned with selecting a mate that has good genes and is willing to invest in offspring. On the other hand, males devote more time and energy to finding and attracting mates and are more concerned with mating as many times as possible. Clark and Hatfield (1989, cited by Hollway et al, 2003) carried out a study in which they found that 75% of male students as oppose to no female students consented to having sex with the opposite sex. They interpreted these results as supporting the evolutionary theory that women and men evolved different strategies and consequently different behaviour, for reproductive success. So we can say that the biological and evolutionary approaches are similar in that they view sex as the foundation of gender; however, social constructivists do not see gender as determined by sex. They strongly believe that a persons gendered behaviour is always constructed through the lens of their interpretation and understanding within their own historical and social contexts and therefore cannot be explained by their biological reproductive sex status alone (Hollway et al, 2003). Social constructivists believe that both sex and gender arise in social interaction and have no existence independent of social interaction. According to this perspective we actively construct the world we live in and this is an on-going process that changes from situation to situation (Phoenix, 2002). Our knowledge of gender is so deeply ingrained that it is difficult to see it as a socially constructed category nevertheless; gender is one of the most powerful constructed categories by which individuals define themselves (Hollway et al, 2003). Bem (1994, cited by Hollway et al, 2003, Pg. 141) believes that masculinity and femininity are socially and culturally constructed dimensions that inform all the forms of our thinking, emotional experience and behaviour. In addition to historical and cultural influences on gender behaviours the media and the school curriculum portray male and female roles in gender stereotypic ways. Social construction theorists would argue that gender inequality is produced and sustained in schools (Hollway et al, 2003). Theorists from this perspective focus on the interpretation of meaning using symbolic data and subjective insider accounts, which are changeable and affected by discourses. This approach differs from the natural science principles embraced by the biological and evolutionary perspectives which are based on an objective, outsider viewpoint and are more fixed (Miell and Pike, 2003). The methodology employed in the next perspective, that of psychoanalysis, uses subjective insider accounts similar to the social constructivists. However, in contrast to the three perspectives discussed thus far, the psychoanalytic approach differs in that it stresses unconscious mental processes and turns to our inner psychological worlds. Although psychoanalysts do take into account social factors like family structure and meaning, it differs from the social construction approach in that it suggest girls and boys have predispositions for behaviour (similar to evolutionary perspective). Moreover, Freuds theory about boys and girls was based on their own perceptions about their bodies and cannot be reduced to biological or societal explanation (Hollway et al, 2003). The psychoanalytic theory proposes that children acquire either feminine or masculine traits or behaviours by identifying with a same sex parent. They believe that sex and gender relations play a vital role in self-development and that children unconsciously internalise differences between the sexes and make them their own, thus establishing their own gendered identity (Hollway et al, 2003). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a key figure in the development of psychoanalysis. The genital stage of Freuds theory of psychosexual development is traditionally seen as the beginning of gender and sexual identity. For Freud the acquisition of sexuality and a gendered identity is a totally psychological process in which children are born psychosexually neutral and then learn to identify with their same sex parent through having resolved their Oedipus (boys) or Electra (girls) complex. The essence of this theory is that, at around five years old, a boys love  for his mother acquires sexual connotations. He becomes a rival with this father for her love. Because his father is such a powerful figure he feels threatened and thus takes on the features of his father. Freud named this the Oedipus complex (Phoenix, 2002) The theory he produced for girls, the Electra complex, whereby she realises that she does not possess a penis (penis envy) and feels devalued, has brought about much controversy and aroused the ire of feminist writers. Additionally, Freud has been criticized for making generalisations about human nature when his evidence was limited to gender relations of a particular time (Hollway et al, 2003). Times have changed and now women are taking on more male roles and have control over their own fertility. As a result Freuds view of how the possession of a penis gives privileges and rites in the family and his failure to consider the significance of womens genitals is strongly criticized. Moreover, research has found that males are envious of womens ability to give birth (Horney, 1926, cited by Hollway et at, 2003). Due to changing times many psychologists have come to believe that most people possess a combination of characteristics that until recently have been traditionally viewed as either masculine or feminine. According to Bem (1974, cited by Hollway et al, 2003) most people are androgynous, that is, they possess both masculine and feminine psychological characteristics. Thus far we have examined four different perspectives in relation to sex and gender and clearly no one perspective can explain the psychology of sex and gender. From a methodological standpoint it is difficult to integrate the differing perspectives. Both biological and evolutionary psychologies embrace the scientific, quantitative approach whereas the social constructivists and psychoanalysts use a qualitative approach focusing on interpretation of meaning. As these methods are so fundamentally different it is most likely that, rather than conflicting, they simply co-exist with one another. The way these perspectives interact can be seen as complimentary for example, as we have discussed, it is accepted that generally individuals are sexed by biology and gendered by social influences. The psychoanalytic theory can be seem as conflicting with the social construction theory in the focus on unconscious (psychoanalytic) versus conscious experience (social constructivists). As can be seen, humans are complex creatures rarely explainable in terms of a single type of influence. The accounts of sex and gender discussed are from four diverse perspectives and it is only by exploring how these interact with one another that we can gain a genuine understanding of the psychology of sex and gender.

Arab Marriage and Family Formation

Arab Marriage and Family Formation Introduction Arab societies are undergoing major changes as new patterns of marriage and family formation emerge across the region. For long decades, early marriage was the common pattern in the Arab world. However, it is no longer the only pattern. The average age of marriage is rising and more Arab women are staying single for a long time and sometimes they dont get married at all. These new marriage trends in the Arab World are part of a world global phenomenon. The changes of marriage trends in the Arab world reflect the social and economic changes taking place in the region. Arab economies moved away from agrarian based systems which supported both early marriage and extended family numbers [Hoda R.and Magued O., 2005]. The majority of the Arab populations live in cities working in industrial or service sectors. Today, Arab women are more educated and more likely to work outside their homes for personal and financial independence. These changes create a new image of woman and change her past traditional role as a mother and household member. The objective of this research is the studying of marriage issue in the Arab world because marriage is one of the key important factors that determine the social and economic present and future in the Arab countries. Both problems of early marriage and increase of average age of marriage of marriage are explained. Finally, a recommended solutions and actions are proposed in order to naturalize the two problems for decreasing the negative impacts and creation of better Arab societies. Importance of Marriage in Arab Society Family is the main concern in Arab societies. Family is considered the main social security system for young and elder people in Arab countries. In Arab culture, parents are responsible for children well into those childrens adult lives, and children reciprocate by taking responsibility for the care of their aging parents—responsibilities that Arabs generally take on with great pride. Marriage for Arabs is thus both an individual and a family matter. In Arab societies, marriage is considered the turning point that defines prestige, recognition, and societal approval on both partners, particularly the bride. Marriage in Arab societies is considered the social and economic contract between two families. Marriage is also considered the right form of socially, culturally, and legally acceptable sexual relationship [1]. Early marriage in Arab World Early marriage is any form of marriage that takes place at age of 18 years. Early marriages are often associated with enforcement. Forced marriage is the marriage conducted without full consent of both parties and sometimes with a threat [2].From human rights point of view, early marriage is considered a violation of human rights conventions. In Arab societies- especially developing countries- early marriage, is considered a means of securing young girls future and protecting them. Wars and social problems may leads also to early marriage as in Palestine, where the intifada has led to earlier marriage. Many countries in the world have declared 18 as the minimum legal age of marriage. However, more than millions of young girls are expected to marry in the next decade according to the international statistics. [2]. Early marriage has decreased in many world countries in the last decades. However, it is still common in rural areas and among poor people. Poor parents believe that early marriage will protect their daughters and save their future. Young girls are forced into marriage by their families while they are still children because they think that marriage benefits them and secure their financial and social future. Early marriage violates children rights because it decreases their human development, leaving them socially isolated with little education, skills and opportunities for employment and self-realization. These conditions ultimately make married girls vulnerable to poverty .Early marriage is a health and human rights violation because it takes place within the context of poverty and gender inequality with social, cultural and economic dimensions [3]. Reasons of early marriage in Arab World There different reasons of early marriage in Arab countries, some of these reasons are referred to cultural reasons, others are referred to economic reasons. Some of these reasons are: High poverty rates, birth rates and death rates, greater incidence of conflict and civil wars, lower levels of overall development, including schooling, employment, health care and believes that early marriage is a means of securing young girls future and protecting them [4]. Traditional values surrounding girls virginity and family honour play a major role in Arab families decisions to marry off their daughters at young ages [1]. Effects of early marriage Although the trend of early marriage is decreasing in the Arab world, the number of young girls in Arab countries teenagers who are married is still high. Early marriage is generally associated with early childbearing and high fertility, both of which pose health risks for women and their children [5]. Young mothers are at greater risk than older mothers of dying from causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. And the younger a bride is, the more significant the age gap with her husband tends to be—which exacerbates her disadvantage in negotiating with her husband on matters such as her own health care needs [6]. Young wives are required to do a many hard domestic duties, including new roles and responsibilities as wives and mothers. The young brides status in the family is dependent on her demonstrating her fertility within the first year of marriage when she is not physiologically and emotionally prepared [7]. Young wives are forced to be responsible for the care and welfare of their families and future generations while they are still children themselves. They have no decision making powers, restricted mobility and limited economic resources. Early marriage is a direct cause of woman poverty and wide age gaps between younger married girls and their spouses create unequal power relations between the young bride and her older and more experienced husband, resulting in husbands having total control over sexual relations and decision-making [5]. Young wives are often unable to make wise plans for their families and may be forced to select between one of two hard choices: either to tolerate husbands violence or to make crimes (killing them). AIDS epidemic increases in young women due to the combination socioeconomic, cultural and political factors that put young women at greater risk of HIV infection due to the lack of sexual knowledge and limited access to information and resources. Younger women may face unsuccessful marriages and divorce could happen as a result of lack of maturity, incomplete independence, limited time to get prepared for marriage and having kids, dealing with education/career building and family formation at the same time. Relative Marriage in Arab World Marriage between relatives is a significant feature in Arab societies. High rate of marriage between relatives is known as  consanguinity. Marriage between relatives is clear in Arab countries such as Libya and Sudan. Sometimes, consanguineous marriage is arranged marriages that reflects the wishes of the marrying relatives. But marriage between close relatives can jeopardize the health of their offspring, as can marriage among families with a history of genetic diseases [1]. New trends in Marriage in Arab world In the last decade, early marriage has declined in many Arab countries such as Kuwait and Emirates. For example , in Emirates, the pace of decline is very significant where the percentage of women ages 15 to 19 who were married dropped from 57 percent in 1975 to 8 percent by 1995 [1]. The general feature of marriage pattern in the for the region as a whole, women are marrying later in late of 20th  or 30th  and some women are not marrying at all. As shown in table (1), In Tunisia, Algeria, and Lebanon, only 1 percent to 4 percent of women ages 15 to 19 are married, and the percentage of women ages 35 to 39 who have never married in these countries now ranges from 15 percent to 21 percent. The percentage of women ages 35 to 39 who have never married is a good indicator for measuring changes in the universality of marriage, because the likelihood of a single woman marrying after age 40 is quite low [8] Source: Pan-Arab Project for Child Development: Arab Mother and Child Health; Council of Health Ministers of GCC States, Gulf Family Health Surveys; and Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics special tabulations of the 2004 Palestinian Demographic and Health Survey . Palestinians have different marriage pattern where early is the most type that takes place. The main reason is the war and occupation where families wishes to increase the generation for freeing their countries and help them to face hard life in the region. As shown in figure (), most of Palatines marry in the age of 14 to 24 year old [1]. SOURCES: Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, special tabulation, 2004 Palestinian Demographic and Health Survey. The marriage-age gap is particularly pronounced in Arab societies. One-quarter of recent marriages in Egypt and Lebanon had women at least 10 years younger than their husbands [9]. Marriage problem in Egypt The main problem of marriage in Egypt is its high costs especially because of dowry, Shabka, Housing, Furniture and appliances and gihaz. Regardless of the economic situations of marrying couples and their families, the gihaz and other goods purchased to set up the newlyweds home have to be new, not used. The rising cost of marriage is in part attributed to the rising expectations and consumerism that have accompanied the opening of the Egyptian economy, which began in the 1970s. The countrys high cost of housing and furnishings have had a number of unintended consequences for marriage patterns, such as youth entering into  urfi  (common-law marriages that are unregistered and generally secretive) as well as men marrying women who are older and financially secured [10]. Nonconventional Forms of Marriage The high costs of Arab marriage as well as high unemployment and economic difficulties are blamed for the spread of so-called â€Å"urfi† (or common law) marriages among young urban adults in some countries in the region. Generally hidden from the participants families, urfi marriages are undertaken to avoid the difficulties of a standard marriage and give a sexual relationship some degree of legitimacy. The secrecy surrounding urfi marriages puts young women at a particular disadvantage because these women are not able to negotiate the terms of their marriage a role usually played by families in conventional marriages. There are thousands of urfi marriages cases in Egypt among university students [11]. Traditionally,  urfi  marriages have been religiously condoned as proper if the couples parents approve of the marriage and there is a public announcement of the ban. Some families in rural villages opt for  urfi  marriages when the bride is too young to be legally married, deferring the official registration of the marriages to a future date. But the public, the religious establishment, and the legal system have generally perceived urban  urfi  marriages as a pretext and cover for premarital sex. Another form of unconventional marriage in the Arab World is the  mutaa  and  messyar.  Mutaa is a  temporary marriage, which is practiced by the Shiites in southern Lebanon and other areas, couples specify in their marriage contract the date upon which the marriage ends. On ther hand,  Messyar  marriage is common in the Gulf region. In this type of marriage, there is an arrangement that man marries without any of the housing and financial responsibility that a standard Arab marriage generally requires of him. In general, Messyar and Mutaa are practiced mostly by men who are marrying a second wife where they tend to give legitimacy to sexual relationships and reduce the number of never married women in society, they introduce other social complications, such as the upbringing of children from such marriages [1]. Womens rights regarding marriage According to the international human rights conventions, woman has the rights when entering, during and at the end of the marriage. When entering marriage, woman has the same right as a man to enter marriage only with full consent. A woman married under minimum age shouldnt be considered legally married. Marriage must be registered in an official registry. If a woman marries someone with another nationality, she will not have her nationality automatically changed to that of her husband unless she chooses that [12]. During marriage, woman has the same rights and responsibilities as man. She has the right to equal access to health services, the right of protection from violence within the family. She also has the same rights as a man to decide freely about the number and spacing of children and to have access to information, education and means to exercise these rights [12]. Woman has the same rights and responsibilities as her husband towards children regardless of her marital status and family benefits. Change in womans husband nationality during marriage doesnt imply that her nationality must be change. If woman is employed she must not be discriminated against on the grounds of marriage and maternity. At the end of marriage, woman has the same rights as man when a marriage ends. Neither woman nationality nor that of her children shall automatically be affected by the ending of a marriage. Woman has the same rights and responsibilities as a man towards her children regardless of her marital status [12]. How to solve the problem? There is an urgent need to for a better understanding of the social and economic environment surrounding Arab marriage. Policies and governmental programs should meet the youth need to marry and make families. Understanding of marriage patterns changes and their social and economic implications need to be addressed. Successful implementation including right decisions and accurate schedules are needed to address and meet the requirements and needs of young people who want to marry or remain single [1]. The recommended solutions for improving marriage situation in Arab World are: Using International pressure specially regarding woman rights stated in human rights conventions on Arab countries to follow the Womens Conventions. Following poverty reduction strategies Making the required reforms of marriage and family laws to meet the human rights standards and monitoring the impacts of these laws on Arab societies. Providing safety employment opportunities for youth specially girls and women affected or at risk of early marriage. Ensuring the right to education and information for girls, including married girls. Providing incentives to encourage families to educate their children. Encouraging activities that change the attitudes and behaviour of community and religious leaders – especially regarding early marriage, girls education and employment. Developing rules that redefine acceptable ages of marriage and offer social and economic supports that allow parents and girls to delay marriage until suitable age. Raising consciousness about child marriage consequences and impacts of increase of average age of marriage as well. Promoting legal, and chosen forms of marriage Supporting married young girls Work cited Hoda R. and Magued, O,, Marriage in the Arab World , Population Reference Bureau, September 2005. Stephen H. , Early Marriage – Child Spouses , Innocenti Digest no. 7, UNICEF , March 2007. UNIFEM, Forced and Early Marriage, URL:http://www.stopvaw.org/Forced_and_Early_Marriage.htmlMinnesota, Advocates for Human Rights, August 2007. Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls, Early Marriage and Poverty Exploring links for policy and program development ,2003. UNFPA, The Promise of Inequality: Gender Inequality and Reproductive Health, URL:http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2003/english/ch2/index.htm, 2005. World Health Organization, â€Å"WHO/UNFPA/Population Council Technical Consultation on Married Adolescents† ,Geneva: WHO, 2003. United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, A Choice by Right: Working Group on Forced Marriages Child Marriage Fact Sheet, 2000. League of Arab States, Pan-Arab Project for Child Development: Arab Mother and Child Health Surveys , Pan-Arab Project for Family Health; Council of Health Ministers of GCC States, Gulf Family Health Surveys; ORC Macro, Demographic and Health Surveys; and Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics special tabulations of 2004 Palestinian Demographic and Health Survey. Social Research Center at the American University in Cairo using the Egypt Demographic and Health Survey (2003) and the Lebanon Maternal and Child Health Survey (1996). Diane S. and Barbara I., â€Å"The Cost of Marriage in Egypt: A Hidden Variable in the New Arab Demography,† in the New Arab Family, Cairo Papers in Social Science 24 (2001): 80-116; and World Bank, â€Å"Building Institutions for Markets,† World Bank Report 2002 (Washington DC: World Bank, 2002): table 1. Gihan S., â€Å"The Double Bind,† Al Ahram Weekly On-line 397 (Oct. 1-7, 1998). The International Womens Tribune Centre Rights of Women, A Guide to the Most Important United Nations Treaties on Womens Human Rights, New York 1998.

Improving Primary Education In Rural Areas Education Essay

Improving Primary Education In Rural Areas Education Essay There is no doubt that the need of improving the quality of primary schools particularly in rural areas is very urgent for government. One of the most promising solution is through utilization of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). In this paper we present our effort and work in improving the quality of primary school teachers and the students learning process so that improves the quality of primary education. This work is part of our research project undertaken in Keerom Regency, Papua Province that is funded by Directorate General for Highly Education Ministry of National Education. Keywords: rural digital learning, primary school, teachers quality, students learning process INTRODUCTION The problem of national education quality has gained much attention recently. A major weakness in rural primary schools is the lack of qualified teachers needed to deliver the lessons in a classroom, primarily in Math and Sciences. Field observations show that most primary school teachers have non-Math and Science background and they deliver these subjects in conventional ways. The result, students misunderstand many abstract concepts of Math and Sciences [1]. The need of improving the quality of education for primary schools is urgently required, particularly for those in rural areas. In our recent studies, one of the most effective approaches to address this issue is by utilizing Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). Studies in [5] reveal that ICT is a key weapon in the war against world proverty in number critial areas including education, healtcare, government, trade, and small business support. Further, Teresa states that ICT-based solutions that work in develop countries cannot simply be transplanted to developing country environments. The solutions must be based on an understanding of local needs and conditions. Through funding grant from Directorate General for Highly Education Ministry of National Education, ITB Research Center on Information and Communication Technology conducts a research program to improve the quality of primary school teachers and improve the students learning process so that improves the quality of primary education, particularly for those in rural areas in Indonesia. In this paper, we report our effort and work on progress in designing and implementing ICT-based environment and learning process for primary schools in Keerom-Papua. In the next section, we provide the overview of related work. In section 3, we describe our work on designing and implementing ICT-based environment and learning process for primary schools in Keerom-Papua. Section 4 presents the challenges of deploying a digital learning system in rural area. Section 5 describes the conclusion of the research. RELATED WORK Our prior work in Research Center on Information and Communication Technology Bandung Institute of Technology suggest that ICTs plays important role as an alternative for delivering learning programs in primary schools such as through virtual class application. We hope that these programs can address some issues in rural areas including the disparity of high quality teacher distribution and the existence of many hard-to-reach geographical locations. Recent studies reveal that the use of ICTs will offer some benefit in improving the quality of primary education. ICT can broaden information access needed by teachers and students as foundation for developing knowledge-based community of teachers and students, ICT can improve the efficiency of learning process as well as improve the teachers and students skills, and ICT can maintain continuing and long life learning. Further, the use of ICTs for improving the teacherss quality and learning process is summarized as follows [1]: ICT for Teachers: developing teacher community network, learning resource repositories, and teaching best practices repositories. ICT for Class: creating virtual class that will help teacher delivering the lesson. ICT for Laboratory: consisting of virtual laboratory and sctructured computer lab. ICT for Students: creating a condusive environtment for students self-learning. ICT for Community: allowing the learning process to be delivered and conducted from anywhere and anytime (e.g. particularly from homes). Both of concepts of ICT for Teachers and ICT for Class have been implemented in a pilot project that was funded by ITB research grant [1]. The project involves two primary schools in Subang (representing rural primary school whose teachers have little knowledge about using computer), two primary school in Bandung (representing urban school whose teachers are computer literate) and one primary school in Cianjur (representing a sub-urban school with modest knowledge of computer usage). Learn from our own experiences, we bring that model to be implemented in Keerom-Papua. IMPLEMENTATION In this paper, we present our work last year in designing and implementing ICT-based environment and learning process for primary schools in Keerom-Papua. Actually, the system deployment consists of two main activities: i) deployment of digital learning infrastructure that is connecting all PC-based terminals and network devices through TCP/IP protocols and ii) deployment of digital learning programs that is providing several ICT-based learning applications and processes such as web-based teachers collaboration (ICT for Teachers) and virtual classroom (ICT for Class). WiFi-based Infrastructure The pilot project in Keerom-Papua involves three primary schools, as participants are SD Inpres I Arso 2, SD Inpres Arso 6, and SD Inpres Arso 7 and one secondary school as center of the community is SMAN Arso. Kantor Dinas Keerom is prepared for the future deployment. Table 1 shows the GPS-based survey from some locations. Table 1. The GPS-based survey Location Latitude Longitude Altitude Kantor Dinas Keerom S 2.91 E 140.77 69,1 m SD Inpres 1 Arso 2 S 2.91 E 140.75 57.3 m SMAN 1 Keerom S 2.87 E 140.74 43.1 m SD Inpres Arso 6 S 2.83 E 140.74 44.1 m SD Inpres Arso 7 S 2.77 E 140.76 35.0 m The deployment of digital learning infrastructure in Keeom-Papua is based on WiFi technology using star network topology [6]. The topology is one of the most common computer network topologies that are choosen because of the ability to isolate individual nodes in the maintenance and troubleshooting process. In that network, SMAN Arso acts as core node that is connected to SD Inpres I Arso 2, SD Inpres Arso 6, and SD Inpres Arso 7 directly using WiFi link as shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1. The mapping of some locations that will be networked in Keerom-Papua [Y] Considering several benefits, SMAN 1 Arso is choosen as a core network (see Fig. 2). SMAN 1 Arso lies in the middle of three primary school offering simplicity to implement star network with the school as the center of the network. This school has Internet connection to Jardiknas network provided by Ministry of National Education that will also provide Internet access for the participants. This school also has a computer teacher that is potentially grabbed as technical support for the sustainability operation of the digital learning infrastructure. Figure 2. The WiFi-based digital learning network using star topology in Keerom-Papua [3] The infrastructure is consisting of PC-based terminals and some network devices. In SMAN 1 Arso, we locate some devices such as a PC-based router, a digital learning server, a wireless access point, an IP Phone, and outdoor WiFi devices. In each primary school, we locate a virtual class box, a notebook, a wireless access point, an IP Phone, and WiFi devices. All of these devices are used to provide some digital learning services including web-based teachers collaboration and virtual classroom. Digital Learning Program From the five approaches of improving the quality of primary education, we have been implementing ICT for Teachers and ICT for Class. We will ellaborate each of these scenarios in the following section. The concept of ICT for Teachers relates to the use of ICT for providing electronic services to teachers and experts. It requires an Internet-based networking of teachers and experts so that allowing them to interact witch each other, to share learning resources and also teaching best practices [1]. This concept is being implemented in a pilot project undertaken in Keerom-Papua involving three primary schools (SD Inpres I Arso 2, SD Inpres Arso 6, and SD Inpres Arso 7) and one secondary school (SMAN 1 Arso) [7]. The participating schools are provided with PC/Laptop and software application as well as access to the Internet. With this infrastructure, a set of learning program are setup for teachers from participating schools. Similar to our pilot project in Bandung-Subang-Cianjur [1], among of them are chatting session in a certain time where all participating teachers interact with each other online as well as online discussion forum among teachers and experts (see Fig. 3). Figure 3. The WiFi-based digital learning network using star topology in Keerom-Papua The ICT for Class is implemented by providing a virtual classroom services for supporting distance learning. The main idea is that ICT will be used to allow a teacher help teaching a class in different school without having to physically attend to that school, for example using a recorded multimedia (offline mode) or through multimedia streaming on the Internet (online mode) [1]. Fig. 4 shows the diagram of online virtual classroom scheme through WiFi-based network in Keerom-Papua. In the online mode that uses teleconference and IP telephony system, a more interactive session can be conducted between students and remote teacher. Figure 4. Diagram of online virtual classroom scheme in Keerom-Papua [3] CHALLENGES The scenario for implementing ICTs in rural primary schools is difficult. Study by Misuraka show that there are a number of technological and human barries that treaten the utilization of ICTs, primarily in rural areas [4]. Our prior study also reveals that there are number barriers in the deployment of digital learning system in Keerom-Papua including the limitation of electricity availability, the bottleneck of WiFi-based intranet in several network paths, inflexibility of digital learning applications, and the human barriers in system operation and maintenance. In the future, some research activities will be conducted to address those issues. To overcome the human barriers, a combination of structured training and training-by-doing also will be conducted. CONCLUSION We have described our experiences last year in utilizing ICTs for improving the quality of primary school teachers and the students learning process so that improves the quality of primary education. A case study is undertaken in Keerom Regency, Papua Province. Today, the implementation of digital learning program is still in progress, particularly the implementation of ICT for Teachers and ICT for Class. Although the result of this research has not been conclusive yet, we believe that our research will be promising to address some quality issues of primary education, particularly in rural areas. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research is partially supported by Directorate General for Highly Education Ministry of National Education and is conducted at Research Center on Information and Communication Technology, Bandung Institute of Technology.

Enlightenment Essay -- History, Slaves, Puritans

The period of Enlightenment in America was host to a society that widely accepted the practice of slavery. It was a custom that was looked favorably upon by most; especially in the South where the economy would have collapsed without it (Davis 1). The slaves were not all cooperative with their bondage however, and there were revolts such as the Stono Rebellion in 1739 (â€Å"Stono Rebellion† Aptheker 1). The treatment of the slaves altered according to their masters severity and the general laws of the area they worked in. Slavery was a struggling debate during the 18th century, and the differing views ended with the Revolutionary War that lasted during 1775 to 1783. Slavery was widely accepted in America during the 1700s. It was an efficient method for farmers and landowners to receive the workers they needed to tend their land and animals. Because of the time period and current immigration boom, slaves often found themselves working with indentured servants. This mostly white majority of people came to America seeking a better life, but were bound to their masters who helped fund their way into the colonies ("New England slavery at the turn of the 18th century." Berlin 1). Indentured servants suffered at the hands of their masters; but unlike slaves, they were not treated as another species or being socially inferior (â€Å"New England† Berlin 1). Many Puritans were uncomfortable with the keeping of slaves and turned to the Bible as a way to justify the practice of human bondage (â€Å"New England† Berlin 1). One of the main conflicts of the Puritans was whether the slaves should be converted to Christianity. Those opposed to this position believed that blacks had no souls to save (â€Å"New England† Berlin 1). They also believed that conversio... ...pears that Jefferson’s gripes are mainly about African Americans rather than their position as slaves, and has the fear of inter-breeding between the whites and blacks. The Enlightenment era was made up of a vast majority of those who accepted slavery, but in the end lost their humanity. It proved a useful tool for farmers and land owners, and it also created much controversy in many topics including religion and human rights. Rebellions were raised and political debates were pursued, and in the end this masterful and inhumane ritual brought a united nation into civil war. Slavery was not a solution for a country so much as it was an ignorance to a race of people. America twisted it’s Puritan values and made them appear supportive of it’s misbehavior. It was not for many years that our nation realized it’s hypocrisy, and it took a war to reach an understanding.

Symbol and Allegory :: essays research papers fc

The use of symbol in poetry and in literature as a whole is commonplace because it is an outlet for the author’s creative psyche. A symbol is a creative use of metaphor, using a comparison but not just a direct comparison. The author attempts to achieve the effect that there is much more than just the reader’s initial reaction creating a want to delve deeper into the true meaning, leaving a vast space of interpretation. Allegory on the other hand is a specific comparison, a symbol that is set in its meaning. This would point towards the absolute meaning of the comparison the poet or author was trying to convey (in other words, a parallel). I have chosen the E.E. Cummings poem â€Å"l(a† because it not only encompasses the idea of symbolism through its need for interpretation, but also due to its simple beauty, creating a visual image of a leaf falling. Edward Estlin Cummings was born on October 14, 1894 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in his family’s home, within an extremely short distance of Harvard (Dreams 9). His word usage and literary abilities were garnered at a young age from his parents. His father Edward was a professor (in fact, the first professor of sociology at Harvard) and a Unitarian minister and his mother Rebecca utilized reading poetry and stories to her children. His father’s strong voice and use of wordplay from his sermons and his mother’s encouragement for E.E. to keep a diary starting at age five started to shape his craft at an early age (Revisited 11). Rebecca aspired for her son to be the next Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (the Cummings family lived across the street from the Longfellow home before E.E. was born) (Dreams 19). Edward Estlin was also a cubist painter in addition to being a poet. During World War I, E.E. Cummings was an ambulance driver in France and was imprisoned under the p retense of treason (Poets.Org). The experience led to one his more important works, The Enormous Room. Around the time of writing â€Å"l(a† E.E. Cummings health was in a very poor state. The poetry reading tours he took part in were furthering his terrible stomach problems in which he had been suffering from around 1955-56 (Dreams 459). In late 1957, his stomach ailments came to a head when a bleeding polyp was discovered in his colon. He spent his sixty-third birthday in a hospital bed and then spent six months in recovery while his â€Å"wife† Marion (of whom he was never actually married to) was in New York (Dreams 461).

General Haig

Did General Haig Deserve To Be The Butcher of the Somme In June 1914 a Serb assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austrian Empire. Austria decided to take revenge against Serbia and invaded. However, Serbia had an alliance with Russia, and Russia with France. Germany came to the aid of Austria. One by one, the powers of Europe were pulled into war by their alliances. This source is taken from a book called â€Å"Investing History a World Study By 1916†. The French were fighting at Verdun for 2 years in trench warfare and no one was winning.The French were on the brink of defeat so they asked the British could they attack on the Somme Valley to give the French some breathing space. The British bombarded the German trenches for 7 days non-stop. Over 3 million shells hit the German trenches. However the Germans built underground bunkers made out of concrete. On July 1st 1916 the first waves of the British soldiers went over the top and were ordered to walk t o the German trenches at walking pace thinking that all of the Germans were dead when the bombardment stoped however then the Germans came out of the bunkers and shot the British down with machine guns.On the first day of the battle 20,000 British soldiers were killed and 30,000 soldiers were injured or wounded. Sir General Haig was in charge of the British at the time. People think that Haig should be remembered as the â€Å"butcher of the Somme† because he sent thousands of British soldiers to their deaths. Some people thought that Haig was a donkey leading lions. Over 1 million men volunteered to fight in 1914 thinking it would be over by Christmas but the battle of the Somme kept going until November 1916 the battle lasted five months. By the time the battle ended 420,000 British soldiers were dead.It was the biggest British military disaster in British history, based on British and German first hand accounts on the battle. The other interpretation of Haig is that he was just doing his job because he was just sending men as he was ordered to do. Source 1A is a valid source to find out the truth about General Haig because a private Fred Pearson on the Western Front, was commented On Haig in a local newspaper in 1966 and he said â€Å"The biggest murderer in the Somme of the lot was Haig I’m very bitter; always have been and always will be and everybody else that knew him.He lived 50 kilometres behind the line and that’s about as near as he got. I don’t think he knew what a trench life was like and they made him an earl and gave him ? 100,000. I know what I’d given him. I think this is reliable because the person who wrote this source is that he was there on the western front and he experienced what the war was like and what Haig was doing. Source 1B and source 2 is good to find out the fact that General Haig was a butcher of the Somme. P. Smith, a private in the 1st border regiment fighting on the Somme, writing in his di ary July 1916.Said, â€Å"It was pure bloody murder. Douglas Haig should have been hung drawn and quartered for what he did on the Somme. What this means is that Haig sent Millions of the young generation to their deaths and no one had really to replace them in their villages or towns. The cream of British manhood was shattered in less than six hours. This is reliable and useful because Private P. Smith was actually there at the battle of the Somme and he saw thousands of friends, family, killed and he foresaw Haig’s doing. Haig was a second-rate commander in a unparalleled and unforeseen circumstances. He was not endowed with any of the elements of imagination and vision and he certainly had none of that personal magnetism which has enabled great leaders of men to inspire multitudes with courage, faith and a spirit of sacrifice he was incapable of planning vast campaigns on the scale demanded on so immense a battle†. This was written by David Lloyd George, British Pri me Minster during the First World War, writing in his War Memoirs (1935). This is reliable becauseSource 6 is valid information about finding the truth about Haig because it’s a cartoon and in it the major general is addressing the men before an attack behind the lines. â€Å" I want you to understand that there is a difference between a rehearsal and the real thing. There are three essential differences: first, the absence of the enemy. Now turning to the Regimental Sergeant- Major what is the second difference? † Sergeant Major. † The absence of the General, Sir. † This source was written in a cartoon to make fun out of the generals as seen in the cartoon. It was written in (February 1917) a cartoon from the British satirical magazine punch.Source 7 is a good evidence to find out the truth about Haig because in this source Blackadder is trying to change General Haig’s mind about going over the top but Haig doesn’t change his mind. [This is t aken from the BBC TV comedy series, Blackadder, which continually portrayed Haig and the generals as fools and murders. In this scene Blackadder is trying to persuade Haig to get him sent home while Haig plays games with toy British soldiers. The series was broadcast in the 1990s. ] I’ am now going to look at source 8 in this source John Laffin writing in his history book