Middle English Literature Essays - English Reformation, Christianity

Middle English Literature This period significant - because of the considerable change in the structure of society, which paved way for a new society. Society now comprised of Lords (barons knights), the clergymen, peasants and artisans (skilled workers). Sheep farming - large production of wool - and its trade - led to - newly evolved middle class yeoman - who became wealthy. Women were looked down upon, no property right for them Church became a powerful institution - clergymen only literate people and so were chosen as King's advisers. Through the clergy - church influenced the government. Corruption at all levels of church hierarchy. Writers like Wycliff and his followers (called as Lollards) prepared the ground for Reformation. Thus England developed into a nation of universal importance in the 12 th , 13 th the 14th Centuries. Now no longer Franco - Latin - Europe" Age of Chaucer ( 1340 - 1400) ( roughly ) Saw the transition from the medieval to the modern it marks the advent of a new language and literature.

The notion that a state of freedom exists in America

The notion that a state of freedom exists in America is completely voided by narcotic laws. Narcotic laws cause a black market, which raises the prices of drugs to astronomical levels. These high prices cause drug addicts to turn to crime in order to support their habit. There exists substantial evidence that marijuana is less harmful than legal product like alcohol or nicotine. The war on drugs is comparable to the Vietnam War, in its harm on the current generation of minorities. The government avoids ending anti-narcotic legislation because of the vast amount of capital, which is spent on the war on drugs in terms of law enforcement and prison systems. Also there are many legislators whose campaign corner stones are often getting tough on drugs, to make an about face would mean political suicide. Yes, drugs are illegal. This very fact is what discourages many Americans from using drugs. The illegalities of the substances in question do not stop all people from using. Despite the severe punishment users of illicit drugs face if caught, illicit drug use is widespread in the United States. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse's 1992 National Household Survey, more than one in three Americans (36.2%) have used illegal drugs at least once in their lifetime, nearly 28 million Americans (11.1%) used them in the previous year, and almost 14 million Americans (5.5%) used them during the past month (Ivey). This is clear evidence that the war is not workin g. Drug addicts will continue using drugs regardless of the penalties associated with procession, simply because they are addicted to these dangerous substances and that takes precedence over fear or respect of the law. The White House Office of Drug Control Policy estimate that 20 percent of the nations cocaine users consume 66 percent of the nations cocaine (Ritter 2). For these addicts, attainment of drugs takes precedence over possible jail ti...

Biochemical Action of Bacteria

To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria. Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and the type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination. Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye. Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) to nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutri ent broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrient agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. FR reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) Th e Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lubâ€⠄¢s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incub ated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (FR reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a. There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the FR reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-positive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole . * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria. A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas. Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium. Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydrolysis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler’s Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-containing amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator. When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan. Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase. Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation. Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive results and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose. Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group. The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen. In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to molecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension. The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas. In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas. This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide). Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine. The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a negative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin. It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease. Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics. The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished. Biochemical Action of Bacteria To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria. Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and the type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination. Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye. Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) to nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutri ent broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrient agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. FR reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) Th e Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lubâ€⠄¢s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incub ated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (FR reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a. There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the FR reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-positive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole . * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria. A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas. Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium. Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydrolysis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler’s Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-containing amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator. When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan. Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase. Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation. Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive results and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose. Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group. The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen. In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to molecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension. The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas. In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas. This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide). Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine. The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a negative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin. It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease. Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics. The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished.

EDU 636 IP5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

EDU 636 IP5 - Essay Example What is even more pivotal is how the online learning environment will foster growth and productivity for the people who are bringing out this environment as well as for the ones who are the recipients of the same. Hence, interaction is the buzzword within such a setting as it grows over a period of time. The online learning environment is termed as a conducive one when there are efforts to ease the navigation in an out and out fashion. What this means is how the users would be able to make their way through the different tasks that are being offered to them through the online learning environment. The user-friendliness therefore is deemed as a very significant entity within the incorporation of the online learning environment which shall foster growth and development across the board. This would mean that there are giant efforts to set things right and that too within the correct perspectives – the viewpoints that take into consideration the already conducted research into the online learning environments of the past, and of today. ... This will set the ball rolling as far as understanding the nuances of the online learning environment are concerned, as the users will feel that they are not only doing their own work within this environment but also being given a thing or two in terms of the aesthetics which remains a point to ponder in this day and age (Laughton, 2011). Since the times of today bank a great deal on the aesthetical angle, it is only natural to have its due incorporation within the thick of things. The usage of audio and video elements has also been seen as some of the more significant pointers within the comprehension of the online learning environments that have been developed in this day and age. What this has meant is the fact that these online learning environments become the tutorials for the audio and video modes and therefore represent success in the long term if the users connect with them in the most basic sense. Any other shortcoming that comes about in the wake of the technical glitches i s something that one must get rid of because these can seriously hinder the smooth working domains of the online learning environments that have been developed today. Thus what one must take into perspective is how these online learning environments are designed and what kind of instructional quality elements are being incorporated so as to receive the best possible interaction that is the sole purpose of having the online learning environments in the first place. There is a dire need to set things right and this is something that poses as a huge problem which must be corrected so as to have proper linkage mechanisms in place. In essence, the principles of design are seen as being quintessential

Survey Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Survey - Research Paper Example Achieving the desired goals entails hard work and dedication. Improving the body shape is a critical part of in determining ones self image, and hence having the goal in mind is always key to help one push through the program. A fitness program has one main aim which is to stimulate ones metabolism resulting in a reduction of body fats. Gathering the right information involves knowing all the facts about increasing the rate of metabolism. Consuming the right quantities of food in the diet plays a critical role. Proteins play an important role in supporting and building the muscles which are very active tissues in metabolism process. Consuming sufficient proteins every day is therefore key in the success of the program. Another important component in diet is carbohydrates, which act as the source of energy calories. The ideal diet combination involving all the food components would include protein the size of a palm, complex carbohydrates, the size of a fist and a portion of vegetables the size of a fist. Adopting a regular exercise program is key in attaining fitness. Weight training is an important aspect in the exercise program as it helps in building muscles that assist in burning fats and calories, increases the rate of metabolism, helps create better shape and improves body strength and endurance. Regular work outs should also include cardiovascular exercises that lead to increased energy levels and improved cardiovascular

Evacuation Sources Questions Essay Example for Free

Evacuation Sources Questions Essay Well, to answer this question I must first analyse both the sources, source B is a picture depicting what seems to be a class of evacuees and their teacher walking down the road, probably to the train station to be evacuated. The picture shows many of the children waving and smiling, and what seems like a lot of them skipping, showing them being happy about being evacuated. Being a photograph, it is quite unlikely that it has been changed in any way, or staged to show the children being happy, as the scene seems quite natural. However it is still possible that it was staged by the government at the time to encourage people not to resist evacuating their children, this would be done by showing the children happy and carefree, not afraid or worried about it. Also the picture was taken at the start of the war, when not many people had been evacuated, at this time the children and their families may not know exactly where they were going, and may have treated it like a holiday, so therefore they probably wouldnt be to afraid about what was happening. So, overall this source is quite a useful source, but that of course depends on what for, it is useful for showing childrens reactions to being evacuated at the start of the war, however this wouldnt be useful for any time before or after this, limiting its usefulness. This also could, if it was a staged photograph by the government, be useful for showing what the government wanted people to think. Source C however is quite different to the previous source, this is an interview with a school teacher during the evacuation, in 1988, in this source, it offers a different view of the childrens feelings about being evacuated, in this source, it tells us that the children were afraid to talk, showing that they werent care or worry free about the situation. This source is primary evidence, as the person was there at the time, however this is taken in 1988, and the person could very well have forgotten some of the details of the evacuation, and therefore their memory of the event could be unreliable. However this might not be the case, and therefore it could be quite reliable. Overall, I think that source B is the most reliable, as it is a photograph taken at the time, and therefore the details of the situation would nearly definitely be correct, source C however is an account from memory and therefore the details could be wrong. Source D is a photograph taken by the government during the war of evacuees being bathed, it shows three bath tubs close together with all the children washing and laughing, this scene would be likely to give the impression that the children, and the places they went to were hygienic, this would lessen the worries of the childrens families, and also may convince more people to become host families, because the children here seem healthy, clean and happy, not dirty smelly children with bad manners, as was many peoples views of them. Also this may convince people to evacuate their children, as many families living in the cities were to poor to even bath their children, so this would be seen as an improvement in their lifestyle and living conditions. Also, if this picture was taken after around January 1940, when many evacuees returned, many of their reasons being that they felt they were better of at home, and that life with the host families was unhappy, or the parents believed this to be so, then this photograph could be being used by the government to convince families to keep their children with host families, that life out there wasnt as bad as it was made out to be. So overall I think that it really depends on when this photo was taken, which would determine why it was taken.

Comparing the Book and Movie Version of The Secret Garden Essay

The Secret Garden: Book vs. Movie The Secret Garden is a film based on Frances Hodgson Burnett's classic children's book bearing the same title. This movie is about a young girl who is literally shipped off to her uncle's English castle after her parents are killed in an earthquake. The main character, Mary, is played by Kate Maberly. She is tossed into a world where sunlight and cheerful discourse seem as rare as the attention she receives from the sour-pussed housekeeper Medlock, played by Maggie Smith. She helps her crippled cousin to see past his hypochondria and into the wonders of a long forgotten garden hidden beyond the confines of Misselthwaite Manor. While one critic dislikes the slight deviations from the book, another is content to relish in the imagery and scenery of The Secret Garden. Megan Rosenfeld, a Washington Post staff writer, is obviously distressed at the modifications made by director Agnieszka Holland to the original story. Ms. Rosenfeld asserts, "If it ain't broke, don't rewrite it." She refers to some specific changes, including the use of an earth...

Sample Business Plan: Food for Thought

We all this product Happy Pastilles. Happy Pastilles, being distributed to retailers In sari – sari stores, would be more convenient and thus, will not require consumers to go somewhere else. Unlike other desserts, a piece of Happy Pastilles can be enough to lessen saltiness, spiciness or greasiness of meals remained in our taste buds. Happy Pastilles offers health conscious consumers and dessert lovers a healthy and friendly local product called pastilles. Happy Pastilles Partnership will provide a combination of excellent dessert with affordable price, unique shape, and nutritious ingredients.Happy Pastilles is the answer to the Increasing demand for craving a dessert after a meal with lower price. Our mission Is to serve customers great tasting nutritious dessert In today's highly competitive environment, it is becomes increasingly difficult to compare our product to the usual pastilles that consumers usually buy. Hundreds of retailers who are selling different pastries are evolving. Our initial target areas are Sat. Elena, San. Rogue, Stop. Ion, Clamping . As we grow, we will develop more kiosks within the city. Happy Pastilles are highly profitable In the first two years.The Increasing probability is partly based on expectations. These forecasts are based on general trends in food industry. We have various promotional strategies for our company name awareness. The marketing campaign through product taste test and sampling, word of mouth will be highlighted as one of our strategies. Product Offerings Sometimes after a meal, people look for something else to eat. Salty, spicy or greasy foods make someone crave for desserts or some known delicacies or pastries just to lessen the unlikable tastes in our mouths.Definitely, desserts need not be ere expensive like Ice cream, Lech flan, and the like and would require to go somewhere else, to answer the craving Happy Pastilles is a high-protein product because it is a milk-based dessert. This is a mixture of powdered milk, condensed milk, and refined sugar. To be unique in the market, crushed peanuts were added as well as the ‘star' shape The product is a homemade dessert for health conscious consumers. Happy Pastilles is a milk-based product, so we can get different nutrients like protein, calcium, Vitamins A, D, E, K, and B.Consumers within the age range of 18 – 30 years old are the next expected to consume the product. Consumers within this age range include the â€Å"growing kids† which are referred to as teens who tend to eat a lot. After eating a meal, they would really look for something else to eat and something that can lessen the unlikable tastes in their mouths. Consumers within the age range of 31 – 43 are like the previous age group who, after eating a meal, would also look for something else to eat.Other than that, people within this age range tend to bring foods along with them especially when going to their workplace. Consumers within the age range of 44 – 56 are people who are quite practical and who would rather choose to buy an ordinary pastilles rather than Happy pastilles. His product. They are the most practical among the age groups who might Just choose to buy the ordinary pastilles rather than Happy Pastilles or choose not to buy at all. SOOT Analysts We are in a highly competitive market in a rapidly growing economy.We foresee our strength as the ability to respond quickly to what the market dictates and to provide quality desserts in a growing market. In addition, through aggressive marketing and quality management, we intend to become a well respected and known entity in our preferred industry. Our key personnel have knowledge on the coal market and expertise, which will go towards penetrating the market which wills the strength; however we acknowledge our weakness, to our limited start-up capital/ shares and the threat of competition in the industry.

Corporations Concluded

1. (TCO E) For federal tax purposes, royalty income that is not derived in the ordinary course of a business is classified as: (Points : 5) portfolio income. answer active income. passive income. None of the above 2. (TCO F) When comparing corporate and individual taxation, the following statement is true: (Points : 5) Unlike individual taxpayer, corporate may not have a long-term capital loss carryforward. Both types of taxpayers have percentage limitations on the charitable contribution deduction, coupled with a carryover of the excess contribution. All taxpayers may carry net operating losses back two years, forward 20 years.All of the above. answer 3. (TCO H) Al and Amy file a joint return for the 2012 tax year. Their adjusted gross income is $80,000. They had net investment income of $7,000. In 2012, they had the following interest expenses: Personal credit card interest: $4,000 Home mortgage interest: $8,000 Investment interest (on loans used to buy stocks): $10,000 What is the interest deduction for Al and Amy for the 2012 tax year? (Points : 5) $8,000 $15,000. answer $12,000 $18,000 4. (TCO B) A contribution made to the following donee is not deductible. (Points : 5) Boy Scouts of America Oxford University, England. answerSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Michigan State University California State Fair (an activity of the State of California) 5. (TCO A) The following taxes were paid by Tim: Real estate taxes on his home: $2,000 State income taxes: $900 State gasoline tax (personal use of automobile): $150 In itemizing his deductions, what is the amount that Tim may claim as a deduction for taxes? (Points : 5) $2,000 $2,900. answer $3,050 $0 6. (TCO F) Hoover, Inc. had gross receipts from operations of $230,000, operating and other expenses of $310,000, and dividends received from a 45 percent-owned domestic corporation of $120,000.Hoover's tax position for the year is: (Points : 5) $8,000 taxable income. $56,000 net operating loss. answer $40,000 taxable income. $80,000 net operating loss. 7. (TCO G) All of the outstanding stock of a closely held C corporation is owned equally by David Smith and Steve Bufusno. In 2012, the corporation generates taxable income of $30,000 from its active business activities. In addition, it earns $20,000 of interest from investments and incurs a $40,000 loss from a passive activity. How much income does the C corporation report for 2012?(Points : 5) $10,000 of portfolio income $0 $20,000 of portfolio income. answer None of the above 8. (TCO G) Bob, who is single, has $90,000 of salary, $25,000 of income from a limited partnership, and a $30,000 passive loss from a real estate rental activity in which he actively participates. His modified adjusted gross income is $90,000. Of the $30,000 loss, how much is deductible? (Points : 5) $30,000. answer $10,000 $25,000 $0 9. (TCO F) Jen owns a sole proprietorship, and Steve is the sole shareholder of a C (regular) corporation.Each business sus tained a $14,000 operating loss and a $3,000 capital loss for the year. Evaluate how these losses will affect the taxable income of the two owners? (Points : 17) A sole proprietorship is taxed through the business owner's personal tax return. Therefore Jen would enter the $14,000 operating loss from the proprietorship on Schedule C of Form 1040 or one of its variants. This reported loss would offset any income Jen reported from any other source on her personal income tax filed. As a noncorporate taxpayer Jen can also deduct the $3000 capital loss for the year.As the sole shareholder of a C corp Steve will see no effect on his taxable income as the shareholder. Income from a C corporation is reported when the shareholder receive dividends. C corporation losses are not reported by the shareholders. 10. (TCO G) Briefly (1) define and (2) discuss the purpose and impact of each of the following: a. at-risk rules b. suspended passive activity losses c. material participation (Points : 18) a. at-risk rules Definition: Losses from a business operation are limited to the amount of money you can actually lose in the business.You are subject to at-risk rules if you are filing Schedules C, E, or F. Tax laws limiting the amount of losses an investor (usually a limited partner) can claim. Only the amount actually at risk can be deducted. b. suspended passive activity losses Definition: A capital loss that cannot be realized in a given tax year due to passive activity limitations. These losses are therefore â€Å"suspended† until they can be netted against passive income in a future tax year. Suspended losses are incurred as a result of passive activities, and can only be carried forward.Suspended losses that are incurred as a result of the disposition of a passive interest are subject to an annual capital loss limit. Suspended losses can, however, be used to offset income realized in a later year that is generated from material participation in the activity that init ially produced the loss. For example, if a taxpayer incurs a $5,000 suspended loss in one year from a passive activity and then materially participates in the activity the following year and earns $10,000, then the suspended loss may be applied against $5,000 of the earned income, leaving the taxpayer with $5,000 of declarable income for the year.c. material participation. Definition: A set of criteria that determines whether a taxpayer is a material participant in a business venture. The material participation test will determine whether business income received by the taxpayer is active or passive. Material participation is determined each year. The IRS has seven tests to determine material participation: The taxpayer works 500 hours or more during the year in the activity. The taxpayer does substantially all the work in the activity.The taxpayer works more than 100 hours in the activity during the year and no one else works more than the taxpayer. The activity is a significant pa rticipation activity (SPA), and the sum of SPAs in which the taxpayer works 100-500 hours exceeds 500 hours for the year. The taxpayer materially participated in the activity in any 5 of the prior 10 years. The activity is a personal service activity and the taxpayer materially participated in that activity in any 3 prior years.Based on all of the facts and circumstances, the taxpayer participates in the activity on a regular, continuous, and substantial basis during such year. However, this test only applies if the taxpayer works at least 100 hours in the activity, no one else works more hours than the taxpayer in the activity, and no one else receives compensation for managing the activity. Determination of â€Å"material participation† is complicated, and lack of material participation can result in passive loss rules. If you think lack of material participation may be an issue in your business, check with your tax adviser.

Definition of American Lyceum Movement

Definition of American Lyceum Movement The American Lyceum Movement inspired a popular trend of adult education  in the 1800s as scholars, authors, and even local citizens, would give lectures to local chapters of the organization. Town lyceums became important gathering places for civically engaged Americans. Lyceum speakers came to include luminaries such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. A future president, Abraham Lincoln, gave his first public address at a Lyceum meeting in his adopted hometown of Springfield, Illinois, on a winter night in 1838. originated with Josiah Holbrook, a teacher and amateur scientist who became a passionate advocate for volunteer educational institutions in towns and villages. The name lyceum came from the Greek word for the public meeting space where Aristotle lectured. Holbrook began a lyceum in Millbury, Massachusetts in 1826. The organization would host educational lectures and programs, and with Holbrook’s encouragement the movement spread to other towns in New England. Within two years, approximately 100 lyceums had been started in New England and in the Middle Atlantic states. In 1829, Holbrook published a book, American Lyceum, which described his vision of a lyceum and gave practical advice for organizing and maintaining one. The opening of Holbrooks book stated: â€Å"A Town Lyceum is a voluntary association of individuals disposed to improve each other in useful knowledge, and to advance the interests of their schools. To gain the first object, they hold weekly or other stated meetings, for reading, conversation, discussion, illustrating the sciences, or other exercises designed for their mutual benefit; and, as it is found convenient, they collect a cabinet, consisting of apparatus for illustrating the sciences, books, minerals, plants, or other natural or artificial productions.† Holbrook listed some of the â€Å"advantages which have already arisen from the Lyceums,† which included: The improvement of conversation. Holbrook wrote: â€Å"Subjects of science, or other topics of useful knowledge, take the place of frivolous conversation, or petty scandal, frequently indulged, and uniformly deplored, in our country villages.†Directing amusements for children. In other words, providing activities that would be useful or educational.Calling into use neglected libraries. Holbrook noted that libraries in small communities often fell into disuse, and he believed the educational activity of a lyceum would encourage people to patronize libraries.Increasing the advantages, and raising the character of, district schools. At a time when public education was often haphazard and disorganized, Holbrook believed that community members involved in a lyceum would be a useful adjunct to local classrooms. In his book, Holbrook also advocated for a â€Å"National Society for the improvement of popular education.† In 1831 a National Lyceum organization was started and it specified a constitution for lyceums to follow. The Lyceum Movement Spread Widely Holbrook’s book and his ideas proved to be extremely popular. By the mid-1830s the Lyceum Movement had grown enormously. More than 3,000 lyceums were operating in the United States, a remarkable number considering the small size of the young nation. The most prominent lyceum was one organized in Boston, which was led by Daniel Webster, renowned lawyer, orator, and political figure. A particularly memorable lyceum was the one at Concord, Massachusetts, as it was regularly attended by authors Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Both men were known to deliver addresses at the lyceum that would later be published as essays. For instance, the Thoreau essay later titled â€Å"Civil Disobedience† was presented in its earliest form as a lecture at the Concord Lyceum in January 1848. Lyceums Were Influential in American Life The lyceums scattered throughout the nation were gathering places of local leaders, and many political figures of the day got their start by addressing a local lyceum. Abraham Lincoln, at the age of 28, gave a speech to the lyceum in Springfield, Illinois in 1838, ten years before he would be elected to Congress and 22 years before he would be elected president. By speaking at the Lyceum, Lincoln followed a familiar path of other young aspiring politicians. The Lyceum Movement gave them a chance to gain some respect in their local communities, and helped lead the way toward political careers. And in addition to homegrown speakers, lyceums were also known to host prominent traveling speakers. The records of the Concord Lyceum indicate that visiting speakers included the newspaper editor Horace Greeley, the minister Henry Ward Beecher, and the abolitionist Wendell Phillips. Ralph Waldo Emerson was in demand as a lyceum speaker, and made a living traveling and giving lectures at lyceums. Attending lyceum programs were a very popular form in entertainment in many communities, especially during winter nights. The Lyceum Movement peaked in the years before the Civil War, though it did have a revival in the decades after the war. Later Lyceum speakers included the author Mark Twain, and the great showman Phineas T. Barnum, who would give lectures on temperance. Sources: Josiah Holbrook. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 7, Gale, 2004, pp. 450-451. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Ljungquist, Kent P. Lyceums.  American History Through Literature 1820-1870, edited by Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer, vol. 2, Charles Scribners Sons, 2006, pp. 691-695.  Gale Virtual Reference Library. Holbrook, J. Josiah Holbrooks Letter on the Farmers Lyceum.  American Eras: Primary Sources, edited by Sara Constantakis, et al., vol. 4: Reform Era and Eastern U.S. Development, 1815-1850, Gale, 2014, pp. 130-134.  Gale Virtual Reference Library.

California Water Pricing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

California Water Pricing - Essay Example Under marginal cost pricing, subsidies are withdrawn and the cost of supply of water is raised to match its full marginal cost. This will cause the demand for water among the farmers and other selected sectors to reduce considerably. This, in turn, creates an excess supply of water that the district supplier can distribute. Multiple water users are likely to pay a higher price for the extra water than the marginal cost, reflecting scarcity conditions in a relatively supply-constrained water market. Thus there will be excess demand as the market price will be much higher than the marginal cost at which it is being priced. There is better efficiency in allocation as the supply is routed to users whose value of the resource matches the marginal costs incurred in its supply. The question of distribution of the excess supply of water is to be debated next. Marginal cost pricing plus auctioning excess demand: One method of distribution would be auctioning off the excess supply of water. In this scenario, farmers buy their existing allocation of water at the marginal cost and are allowed an option of buying extra water, which is beyond their original allocation, in a competitive bid. The excess water, in this case, will be redistributed to the highest bidder. Full water marketing: The other option available is full water marketing. In this case, water will be traded freely at the market and price will be determined by the forces of demand and supply. Water as a resource is scarce in its existing quantity and hence supply will remain inelastic. Therefore the price of water will be higher than the marginal cost, the demand will drop and this will lead to more excess water supply for redistribution than the previous scenario. Full marketing will thus yield greater efficiency gains than the options discussed above. The excess water can be redistributed either by auctioning rights or by granting rights by charging the users the marginal cost and allowing for resale of these rights in the open market.

Business Management Affairs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Business Management Affairs - Essay Example Data gathering, data assessment, and the forming plan, including strategies, tactics, and desired results, are essential to professional contract negotiations. One will need to create a highly collaborative atmosphere to increase the possibility of achieving a perceived win/win outcome. When engaging in a contract, it is important not to narrow down to one issue, instead understanding that the other side has different interests and needs. In other words, it is important to understand the other party’s real needs. Leading authorities on contract law have defined a contractual agreement as a legally enforceable and voluntary promise exchanged by two or more parties (Simon and Davina) to provide the terms of the promise in exchange for something of value known as consideration. The parties to a contract must make a promise to one another; these parties are obliged to complete the obligations of a promise. If there is a party that feels injured by not receiving that to which he or she is entitled, then the promise will have to be addressed in the court against the party who broke the promise. For example, a person who borrows money from a bank promises to repay the money. If that person fails to repay the money, the bank can go to court and attempt to collect the money that is owed. Contract law further assures the parties to a contract private agreement that the promises one had engaged in will be enforceable. In real sense, many promises are kept because the parties involved feel a moral obligation to do so or because keeping a promise is their mutual interest. The person making the promise (Davina) and the person to who the promise is made (Simon) may decide to honor their agreement for other reasons. Generally, the rules of the contract law are often followed in business agreements to avoid potential problems. Contract law also provides an essential condition for their existence of a market economy. Without a legal